Endnotes

1. Afrika Bambaataa (1995), a.k.a. “the Master of Records,” points out one of the nuances of hip-hop music that academics seem to overlook.  He explains that while the music’s roots start with black people, we should not forget that inherent in the act of sampling previously recorded music to make something new is the appropriation of music from people of many different backgrounds:  “First of all, let me tell you that the music (beats) that makes up hip-hop, comes from different nationalities and races, especially from black people, and if you think I am a brother who don’t know what he is talking about, just check out many of the music, beats, grooves and sounds that many of your rappers use to make their records or rap over. Hip-hop music in general is colorless and not racist.  It comes from many categories in music, for example: Hip-hop music is made up from other forms of music like funk, soul, rhythm & blues, jazz, rock, heavy metal, salsa, soca (calypso), TV shows, kiddie shows, horror movies, techno, pop, disco, African, Arabic, reggae, etc. . . . and if you use any records from these categories, you will see that the music is made by people from different races or nationalities from all over the planet, but it’s roots start with black people.”
2. Within this discourse, it should be noted that hip-hop music has generally been associated more with a connection to culture and ideology, while rap music has been associated more with the music itself.  To further confound this distinction, forms of rap music that would normally be considered less connected to the culture are currently being labeled as “hip-hop” by mass media outlets, thus undermining the aforementioned distinction.
3. “The Universal Zulu Nation was founded in 1973 in the Bronx, New York, by a young student named Afrika Bambaataa. It was his idea to use music to spread the message of the Universal Zulu Nation. He knew that music is universal and crosses all barriers. So with the birth of Hip-Hop, which started in New York City, Afrika Bambaataa, members of the Zulu Nation and many of his groups like the Soulsonic Force, Shango, Rock Steady Crew, D.S.T., Fab Five Freddy, Phase 2, Dondi, and Futura 2000, started to travel throughout the world to spread Hip-Hop culture… This organization has hundreds of chapters throughout the world. Its members, who came from many different races, cultures, nationalities, countries and religions believe in freedom, justice, equality, knowledge, wisdom and understanding. Zulu Nation members discourage divisions and want to see peace and unity on the planet earth with all races.” http://www.globaldarkness.com/articles/universal_zulu_nation.htm
4. Many of the academics caught up in popular rap controversy may not be aware that emcees and rappers could not have gained such prominence without the bgirls, bboys, bombers, (graffiti) writers and deejays who were cultivating Hip-Hop long before it became commonplace for someone to take center stage with a mic, and who opened many doors for rappers and emcees during Hip-Hop’s initial exposure to the outside world (see The Freshest Kids, 2002 and Wild Style, 1982).
5. What gives Kool Mo Dee credibility?  Chuck D (2003) explains: “Besides being a Hall of Fame rapper (whilst there’s no hall of fame, yet…help), [Kool Mo Dee] introduced to the genre the first rap scientist.  A scientist in the same way that in sports Ted Williams broke down the science of hitting, or Jordan the art of basketball, Kool Mo Dee dissected this art form when most were questioning what it was or how long it would be around… It’s about time the masters write some of the script about this thing called rap… [Dee’s book] is an introduction to recognize the beauty of the genre, from the past twenty-five years…coming from one of the best that ever rhymed it” (v-vii).
6. I would like to relate an anecdote from one night of research at a KRS-One show in New Haven, CT.  I was outside interviewing a number of different Hip-Hop artists and fans and I approached a young man and asked him if, by chance, he was an emcee.   He responded defensively, “Yeah, why you wanna know?”  I explained that I was interviewing emcees and other Hip-Hop artists for a senior thesis at Yale and he quickly asked, “What are you tryin’ to find out?”  I explained that one of my questions had to do with how commercial status effects am emcee’s art and he immediately asked me what my answer to the question was.  After I gave my own opinion, he asked what year I was born.  I responded, “1981.”  He asked, “When did you start listenin’ to hip-hop?” I responded, “ ‘93.”  He then began to explain that I was not suited to discuss Hip-Hop because I was not around when artists like KRS, Rakim, and Big Daddy Kane came up.  Assuming either that I was unfamiliar with these artists or that I didn’t know enough about them, he suggested that I “Read up on them and then call him to talk more.”  While I never did get to interview this emcee, his reaction to my research does reveal at least one interesting point:  1. It is likely that this artist is not the only Hiphoppa who takes interpretation of the music and culture very seriously.  There seems to be a strong conviction that a lack of knowledge about earlier Hip-Hop artists is a serious problem with current interpretations of the music and culture.  This is one reason that I believe my focus on artists such as Afrika Bambaataa and Kool Mo Dee and entities such as the Universal Zulu Nation is important.
7. Only recently have academics begun to examine deeply the international manifestations of Hip-Hop that reach far beyond the original United States inner city demographic. Such research has found that rap music and Hip-Hop culture are not only being consumed, but also produced by people all over the world from a wide variety of racial, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds (Mitchell, 33). See Global Noise (2001) by Tony Mitchell and Where You’re At (2003) by Patrick Neate.